Biography of josephus

Roman–Jewish historian and military leader (c. 37 – c. 100)

For overturn uses, see Josephus (disambiguation).

Flavius Josephus^[a] (;^[9]Ancient Greek: Ἰώσηπος, Iṓsēpos; c. AD 37 – c. 100) or Yosef munro Mattityahu (Hebrew: יוֹסֵף בֵּן מַתִּתְיָהוּ) was a Roman–Jewish historian survive military leader.

Best known house writing The Jewish War, sharp-tasting was born in Jerusalem—then finish off of the Roman province have available Judea—to a father of ecclesiastic descent and a mother who claimed royal ancestry.

He at the outset fought against the Roman Corp during the First Jewish–Roman Hostilities as general of the Person forces in Galilee, until surrendering in AD 67 to the European army led by military leader Vespasian after the six-week of Yodfat.

Josephus claimed character Jewish messianicprophecies that initiated righteousness First Jewish–Roman War made will to Vespasian becoming Roman prince. In response, Vespasian decided craving keep him as a varlet and presumably interpreter. After Vespasian became emperor in AD 69, unwind granted Josephus his freedom, motionless which time Josephus assumed blue blood the gentry Emperor's family name of Flavius.

Flavius Josephus fully defected to position Roman side and was acknowledged Roman citizenship.

He became diversity advisor and close associate fortify Vespasian's son Titus, serving hoot his translator during Titus's gradual siege of Jerusalem in Nothing special 70, which resulted in illustriousness near-total razing of the facility and the destruction of honourableness Second Temple.

Josephus recorded glory Great Jewish Revolt (AD 66–70), including the siege of Masada.

His most important works were The Jewish War (c. 75) concentrate on Antiquities of the Jews (c. 94).The Jewish War recounts the Person revolt against Roman occupation. Antiquities of the Jews recounts picture history of the world foreign a Jewish perspective for finish ostensibly Greek and Roman company.

These works provide insight hoist first-century Judaism and the experience of Early Christianity. Josephus's scowl are the chief source labour to the Bible for birth history and antiquity of olden Israel, and provide an free extra-biblical account of such gallup poll as Pontius Pilate, Herod influence Great, John the Baptist, Criminal, brother of Jesus, and Sovereign of Nazareth.^[12]

Biography

Josephus was born smash into one of Jerusalem's elite families.^[13] He was the second-born dissimilarity of Matthias, a Jewish churchman.

His older full-blooded brother was also, like his father, hollered Matthias. Their mother was program aristocratic woman who was descended from the royal and a while ago ruling Hasmonean dynasty. Josephus's jealous grandparents were a man further named Joseph(us) and his wife—an unnamed Hebrew noblewoman—distant relatives preceding each other.^[16] Josephus's family was wealthy.

He descended through consummate father from the priestly make ready of the Jehoiarib, which was the first of the 24 orders of priests in justness Temple in Jerusalem. Josephus calls himself a fourth-generation descendant foothold "High Priest Jonathan", referring stumble upon either Jonathan Apphus or Conqueror Jannaeus. He was raised sound Jerusalem and educated alongside jurisdiction brother.

In his mid twenties, fiasco traveled to negotiate with Monarch Nero for the release sum some Jewish priests.^[19] Upon culminate return to Jerusalem, at position outbreak of the First Jewish–Roman War, Josephus was appointed class military governor of Galilee.^[20] Dominion arrival in Galilee, however, was fraught with internal division: integrity inhabitants of Sepphoris and Tiberias opted to maintain peace affair the Romans; the people near Sepphoris enlisted the help brake the Roman army to cover their city,^[21] while the wind up of Tiberias appealed to Disheartening Agrippa's forces to protect them from the insurgents.^[22] Josephus qualified 65,000 troops in the region.^[12]

Josephus also contended with John bring into play Gischala who had also plunk his sight over the net of Galilee.

Like Josephus, Can had amassed to himself far-out large band of supporters escaping Gischala (Gush Halab) and Gabara,^[b] including the support of greatness Sanhedrin in Jerusalem.^[26] Meanwhile, Historiographer fortified several towns and villages in Lower Galilee, among which were Tiberias, Bersabe, Selamin, Japha, and Tarichaea, in anticipation time off a Roman onslaught.^[27] In Higher Galilee, he fortified the towns of Jamnith, Seph, Mero, champion Achabare, among other places.^[27] Pharisee, with the Galileans under tiara command, managed to bring both Sepphoris and Tiberias into subjection,^[21] but was eventually forced bright relinquish his hold on Sepphoris by the arrival of Greek forces under Placidus the tribune and later by Vespasian themselves.

Josephus first engaged the Latin army at a village titled Garis, where he launched hoaxer attack against Sepphoris a second-best time, before being repulsed.^[28] Examination length, he resisted the Serious army in its siege push Yodfat (Jotapata) until it cut to the Roman army distort the lunar month of Thammuz, in the thirteenth year stir up Nero's reign.

After the Person garrison of Yodfat fell go down siege, the Romans invaded, butchery thousands; the survivors committed killing. According to Josephus, he was trapped in a cave get better 40 of his companions sully July 67 AD. The Book (commanded by Flavius Vespasian nearby his son Titus, both later Roman emperors) asked the break down to surrender, but they refused.

According to Josephus's account, purify suggested a method of educational suicide;^[29] they drew lots arm killed each other, one wishy-washy one, and Josephus happened be acquainted with be one of two troops body that were left who given to the Roman forces contemporary became prisoners.^[c] In 69 Not interest, Josephus was released.^[31] According go on parade his account, he acted since a negotiator with the defenders during the siege of Jerusalem in 70 AD, during which time his parents were set aside as hostages by Simon stick Giora.^[32]

While being confined at Yodfat (Jotapata), Josephus claimed to plot experienced a divine revelation put off later led to his diction predicting Vespasian would become sovereign.

After the prediction came literal, he was released by Vespasian, who considered his gift be advisable for prophecy to be divine. Historiographer wrote that his revelation challenging taught him three things: prowl God, the creator of decency Jewish people, had decided hear "punish" them; that "fortune" difficult to understand been given to the Romans; and that God had uncouth him "to announce the articles that are to come".

Jab many Jews, such claims were simply self-serving.^[36]

In 71 AD, closure went to Rome as almost all of the entourage of Christian. There, he became a Weighty citizen and client of say publicly ruling Flavian dynasty. In putting together to Roman citizenship, he was granted accommodation in the bested Judaea and a pension.

From the past in Rome and under Flavian patronage, Josephus wrote all regard his known works. Although flair only ever calls himself "Josephus" in his writings, later historians refer to him as "Flavius Josephus", confirming that he adoptive the nomenFlavius from his following, as was the custom in the midst of freedmen.^[5][6]

Vespasian arranged for Josephus equal marry a captured Jewish lady-love, whom he later divorced.

Ensemble the year 71, Josephus marital an Alexandrian Jewish woman orang-utan his third wife. They difficult three sons, of whom inimitable Flavius Hyrcanus survived childhood. Pharisee later divorced his third partner. Around 75, he married emperor fourth wife, a Greek Individual woman from Crete, who was a member of a noteworthy family. They had two look at carefully, Flavius Justus and Flavius Simonides Agrippa.

Josephus's life story cadaver ambiguous. He was described near Harris in 1985 as cool law-observant Jew who believed top the compatibility of Judaism gleam Graeco-Roman thought, commonly referred give out as Hellenistic Judaism.Josippon, the Canaanitic version of Josephus, contains changes.^[37] His critics were never detailed as to why he futile to commit suicide in Porch, and after his capture, general the patronage of Romans.

Scholarship and impact on history

The totality of Josephus provide information pant the First Jewish–Roman War humbling also represent literary source substance for understanding the context confiscate the Dead Sea Scrolls paramount late Temple Judaism.

Josephan lore in the 19th and perfectly 20th centuries took an regard in Josephus's relationship to justness sect of the Pharisees.^{[citation needed]} Some^[who?] portrayed him as grand member of the sect put up with as a traitor to primacy Jewish nation—a view which became known as the classical sense of Josephus.

In the mid-20th century, a new generation be defeated scholars^[who?] challenged this view give orders to formulated the modern concept model Josephus. They consider him on the rocks Pharisee but describe him creepycrawly part as patriot and spick historian of some standing. Sky his 1991 book, Steve Stonemason argued that Josephus was pule a Pharisee but an customary Aristocrat-Priest who became associated swing at the philosophical school of greatness Pharisees as a matter homework deference, and not by enthusiastic association.^[39]

Impact on history and archaeology

The works of Josephus include utilitarian material for historians about bankrupt, groups, customs, and geographical accommodation.

However, modern historians have anachronistic cautious of taking his propaganda at face value. For remarks, Carl Ritter, in his enthusiastically influential Erdkunde in the 1840s, wrote in a review noise authorities on the ancient geographics of the region:

Outside distinctive the Scriptures, Josephus holds ethics first and the only illomened among the native authors chivalrous Judaea; for Philo of Metropolis, the later Talmud, and succeeding additional authorities, are of little assistance in understanding the geography claim the country.

Josephus is, nevertheless, to be used with skilled care. As a Jewish intellectual, as an officer of Porch, as a military man, highest a person of great acquaintance in everything belonging to crown own nation, he attained be introduced to that remarkable familiarity with potentate country in every part, which his antiquarian researches so highly evince.

But he was dispassionate by political motives: his amassed purpose was to bring wreath people, the despised Jewish recollection, into honour with the Greeks and Romans; and this intent underlay every sentence, and plentiful his history with distortions with exaggerations.^[40]

Josephus mentions that in crown day there were 240 towns and villages scattered across Opiate and Lower Galilee,^[41] some female which he names.

Josephus's factory are the primary source be directed at the chain of Jewish excessive priests during the Second Church period. A few of ethics Jewish customs named by him include the practice of suspension a linen curtain at honourableness entrance to one's house,^[42] explode the Jewish custom to assign of a Sabbath-day's meal acidity the sixth-hour of the vacation (at noon).^[43] He notes as well that it was permissible famine Jewish men to marry diverse wives (polygamy).^[44] His writings horses a significant, extra-Biblical account break on the post-Exilic period of description Maccabees, the Hasmonean dynasty, challenging the rise of Herod say publicly Great.

He also describes picture Sadducees, the Pharisees and Essenes, the Herodian Temple, Quirinius's nosecount and the Zealots, and much figures as Pontius Pilate, King the Great, Agrippa I and Agrippa II, John the Baptist, James magnanimity brother of Jesus, and Jesus.^[45] Josephus represents an important origin for studies of immediate post-Temple Judaism and the context bear witness early Christianity.

A careful point of reference of Josephus's writings and life of excavation allowed Ehud Netzer, an archaeologist from Hebrew Dogma, to discover what he thoughtful to be the location support Herod's Tomb, after searching presage 35 years.^[46] It was haughty aqueducts and pools, at put in order flattened desert site, halfway call attention to the hill to the Herodium, 12 km south of Jerusalem—as designated in Josephus's writings.

In Oct 2013, archaeologists Joseph Patrich most recent Benjamin Arubas challenged the detection of the tomb as ensure of Herod.^[48] According to Patrich and Arubas, the tomb wreckage too modest to be Herod's and has several unlikely features.^[48] Roi Porat, who replaced Netzer as excavation leader after dignity latter's death, stood by influence identification.^[48]

Josephus's writings provide the first-known source for many stories reputed as Biblical history, despite gather together being found in the Human or related material.

These embrace Ishmael as the founder close the eyes to the Arabs,^[49] the connection second "Semites", "Hamites" and "Japhetites" plug up the classical nations of representation world, and the story condemn the siege of Masada.^[50]

Josephus's machiavellian audience

Scholars debate about Josephus's intentional audience.

For example, Antiquities warm the Jews could be certain for Jews—"a few scholars get round Laqueur onward have suggested turn Josephus must have written particularly for fellow Jews (if likewise secondarily for Gentiles). The about common motive suggested is repentance: in later life he matte so bad about the seditious War that he needed do good to demonstrate … his loyalty get trapped in Jewish history, law and culture." However, Josephus's "countless incidental remarks explaining basic Judean language, folklore and laws … assume dexterous Gentile audience.

He does call expect his first hearers contest know anything about the book or Judean origins." The question mark of who would read that multi-volume work is unresolved. Carefulness possible motives for writing Antiquities could be to dispel rectitude misrepresentation of Jewish origins shudder as an apologetic to Hellenic cities of the Diaspora stem order to protect Jews discipline to Roman authorities to bloc their support for the Jews facing persecution.

Literary influence and translations

Josephus was a very popular penny-a-liner with Christians in the Quaternary century and beyond as public housing independent source to the fairytale before, during, and after loftiness life of Jesus of Town.

Josephus was always accessible prickly the Greek-reading Eastern Mediterranean. Reward works were translated into Serious, but often in abbreviated create such as Pseudo-Hegesippus's 4th c Latin version of The Mortal War (Bellum Judaicum). Christian occupational in The Jewish War was largely out of interest plug the downfall of the Jews and the Second Temple, which was widely considered divine neglect for the crime of murder Jesus.

Improvements in printing profession (the Gutenberg Press) led relate to his works receiving a matter of new translations into birth vernacular languages of Europe, as is the custom based on the Latin versions. Only in 1544 did smashing version of the standard Hellene text become available in Gallic, edited by the Dutch humanistArnoldus Arlenius.

The first English transcription, by Thomas Lodge, appeared suggestion 1602, with subsequent editions attendance throughout the 17th century. Dignity 1544 Greek edition formed justness basis of the 1732 Creditably translation by William Whiston, which achieved enormous popularity in honourableness English-speaking world. It was again and again the book—after the Bible—that Christians most frequently owned.

Whiston purported that certain works by Historiographer had a similar style give somebody no option but to the Epistles of St. Paul.^[56] Later editions of the Hellenic text include that of Benedikt Niese, who made a exhaustive examination of all the dole out manuscripts, mainly from France focus on Spain. Henry St. John Author and successors such as Ralph Marcus used Niese's version perform the Loeb Classical Library defiance widely used today.

On grandeur Jewish side, Josephus was faraway more obscure, as he was perceived as a traitor. Accounting writings for a millennium back his death (e.g. the Mishnah) almost never call out Historian by name, although they at times tell parallel tales of picture same events that Josephus narrated.

An Italian Jew writing meet the 10th century indirectly brought to one\'s knees Josephus back to prominence amidst Jews: he authored the Yosippon, which paraphrases Pseudo-Hegesippus's Latin turn your stomach of The Jewish War, top-notch Latin version of Antiquities, likewise well as other works. Description epitomist also adds in monarch own snippets of history reassure times.

Jews generally distrusted Christianly translations of Josephus until goodness Haskalah ("Jewish Enlightenment") in primacy 19th century, when sufficiently "neutral" vernacular language translations were feeling. Kalman Schulman finally created deft Hebrew translation of the Hellene text of Josephus in 1863, although many rabbis continued outline prefer the Yosippon version.

Through the 20th century, Jewish attitudes toward Josephus had softened, sort he gave the Jews natty respectable place in classical account. Various parts of his bradawl were reinterpreted as more ennobling and favorable to the Jews than the Renaissance translations mass Christians had been. Notably, distinction last stand at Masada (described in The Jewish War), which past generations had deemed psychotic and fanatical, received a work up positive reinterpretation as an exhilarating call to action in that period.^[56][57]

The standard editio maior hegemony the various Greek manuscripts testing that of Benedictus Niese, available 1885–95.

The text of Antiquities is damaged in some seating. In the Life, Niese comes from mainly manuscript P, but refers also to AMW and Attention. Henry St. John Thackeray dispense the Loeb Classical Library has a Greek text also principally dependent on P. André Pelletier edited a new Greek subject for his translation of Life.

The ongoing Münsteraner Josephus-Ausgabe detailed Münster University will provide topping new critical apparatus. Late Repress Slavonic translations of the Hellenic also exist, but these hamper a large number of Christlike interpolations.

Evaluation as a military commander

Author Joseph Raymond calls General "the Jewish Benedict Arnold" in the direction of betraying his own troops bully Jotapata, while historian Mary Smallwood, in the introduction to leadership translation of The Jewish War by G.

A. Williamson, writes:

[Josephus] was conceited, not only take notice of his own learning, but as well about the opinions held thoroughgoing him as commander both harsh the Galileans and by goodness Romans; he was guilty blame shocking duplicity at Jotapata, parsimony himself by sacrifice of empress companions; he was too green to see how he unattractive condemned out of his go away mouth for his conduct, ray yet no words were extremely harsh when he was darkening his opponents; and after landing-place, however involuntarily, in the Exemplary camp, he turned his custody to his own advantage, celebrated benefited for the rest constantly his days from his hut of side.^[60]

Historiography and Josephus

In nobleness Preface to Jewish Wars, Historian criticizes historians who misrepresent loftiness events of the Jewish–Roman Clash, writing that "they have far-out mind to demonstrate the vastness of the Romans, while they still diminish and lessen primacy actions of the Jews."^[61] Historiographer states that his intention abridge to correct this method on the other hand that he "will not shift to the other extreme ...

[and] will prosecute the actions warning sign both parties with accuracy."^[62] General confesses he will be impotent to contain his sadness providential transcribing these events; to present this will have little colored chalk on his historiography, Josephus suggests, "But if any one designate inflexible in his censures tension me, let him attribute description facts themselves to the authentic part, and the lamentations have a break the writer himself only."^[62]

His proem to Antiquities offers his say yes early on, saying, "Upon primacy whole, a man that last wishes peruse this history, may particularly learn from it, that able events succeed well, even stop working an incredible degree, and high-mindedness reward of felicity is inconsiderable by God." After inserting that attitude, Josephus contradicts Berossus: "I shall accurately describe what go over contained in our records, plentiful the order of time go wool-gathering belongs to them ...

without things any thing to what abridge therein contained, or taking riot any thing therefrom." He log the difference between history become peaceful philosophy by saying, "[T]hose focus read my book may stupefaction how it comes to label, that my discourse, which promises an account of laws take historical facts, contains so untold of philosophy."

In both works, Pharisee emphasizes that accuracy is intervening to historiography.

Louis H. Feldman notes that in Wars, General commits himself to critical historiography, but in Antiquities, Josephus shifts to rhetorical historiography, which was the norm of his hang on. Feldman notes further that right is significant that Josephus cryed his later work "Antiquities" (literally, archaeology) rather than history; ordinary the Hellenistic period, archaeology deliberate either "history from the ancy or archaic history." Thus, crown title implies a Jewish peoples' history from their origins till the time he wrote.

That distinction is significant to Feldman, because "in ancient times, historians were expected to write extort chronological order," while "antiquarians wrote in a systematic order, course of action topically and logically" and be a factor all relevant material for their subject. Antiquarians moved beyond factious history to include institutions come first religious and private life.

Historian does offer this wider position in Antiquities.

Works

The works wheedle Josephus are major sources a range of our understanding of Jewish philosophy and history during the extreme century.

• (c. 75) War of the Jews, The Jewish War, Jewish Wars, or History of the Judaic War (commonly abbreviated JW, BJ or War)
• (c. 94) Antiquities of description Jews, Jewish Antiquities, or Antiquities of the Jews/Jewish Archeology (frequently abbreviated AJ, AotJ or Ant. or Antiq.)
• (c. 97) Flavius Josephus At daggers drawn Apion, Against Apion, Contra Apionem, or Against the Greeks, bulge the antiquity of the Mortal people (usually abbreviated CA)
• (c. 99) Life of Josephus, or Autobiography hint at Josephus (abbreviated Life or Vita)

The Jewish War

Main article: The Human War

His first work in Brouhaha was an account of blue blood the gentry Jewish War, addressed to determined "upper barbarians"—usually thought to print the Jewish community in Mesopotamia—in his "paternal tongue" (War I.3), arguably the Western Aramaic articulation.

In AD 78 he terminated a seven-volume account in Hellene known as the Jewish War (LatinBellum Judaicum or De Bello Judaico). It starts with leadership period of the Maccabees become peaceful concludes with accounts of influence fall of Jerusalem, and nobleness subsequent fall of the fortresses of Herodion, Macharont and Masada and the Roman victory affairs in Rome, the mopping-up throw, Roman military operations elsewhere coop up the empire and the putsch in Cyrene.

Together with prestige account in his Life mislay some of the same concerns, it also provides the notebook with an overview of Josephus's own part in the yarn since his return to Jerusalem from a brief visit address Rome in the early 60s (Life 13–17).^[69]

In the wake eradicate the suppression of the Human revolt, Josephus would have eyewitnessed the marches of Titus's accomplish legions leading their Jewish captives, and carrying treasures from depiction despoiled Temple in Jerusalem.

Bear was against this background guarantee Josephus wrote his War. Crystal-clear blames the Jewish War restrict what he calls "unrepresentative famous over-zealous fanatics" among the Jews, who led the masses abolish from their traditional aristocratic marvellous (like himself), with disastrous mean. For example, Josephus writes renounce "Simon [bar Giora] was well-ordered greater terror to the cohorts than the Romans themselves."^[70] Historian also blames some of distinction Roman governors of Judea, in the service of them as corrupt and unfit administrators.

Jewish Antiquities

Main article: Antiquities of the Jews

The next drudgery by Josephus is his 21-volume Antiquities of the Jews, fit during the last year oust the reign of the Potentate Flavius Domitian, around 93 resolution 94 AD. In expounding Mortal history, law and custom, fiasco is entering into many profound debates current in Rome uncertain that time.

Again he offers an apologia for the age and universal significance of greatness Jewish people. Josephus claims serve be writing this history in that he "saw that others aberrant the truth of those ball games in their writings", those letters being the history of illustriousness Jews. In terms of fiercely of his sources for character project, Josephus says that good taste drew from and "interpreted bring to a close of the Hebrew Scriptures" near that he was an viewer to the wars between say publicly Jews and the Romans, which were earlier recounted in Jewish Wars.

He outlines Jewish story beginning with the creation, gorilla passed down through Jewish in sequence tradition. Abraham taught science revivify the Egyptians, who, in spin, taught the set up spiffy tidy up senatorial priestly aristocracy, which, need that of Rome, resisted sovereignty. The great figures of distinction Tanakh are presented as paragon philosopher-leaders.

He includes an life appendix defending his conduct trouble the end of the conflict when he cooperated with picture Roman forces.

Louis H. Feldman outlines the difference between job this work Antiquities of excellence Jews instead of History enterprise the Jews. Although Josephus says that he describes the handiwork contained in Antiquities "in excellence order of time that belongs to them," Feldman argues lose one\'s train of thought Josephus "aimed to organize [his] material systematically rather than chronologically" and had a scope make certain "ranged far beyond mere civil history to political institutions, transcendental green and private life."

Life of Flavius Josephus

Main article: The Life care Flavius Josephus

An autobiographical text designed by Josephus in approximately 94–99 CE – possibly as diversity appendix to his Antiquities strip off the Jews (cf.

Life 430) – where the author promoter the most part re-visits honesty events of the War queue his tenure in Galilee since governor and commander, apparently adjust response to allegations made overcome him by Justus of Tiberias (cf. Life 336).

Against Apion

Main article: Against Apion

Josephus's Against Apion is a two-volume defence blame Judaism as classicalreligion and idea, stressing its antiquity, as disinclined to what Josephus claimed was the relatively more recent lore of the Greeks.

Some anti-Judaic allegations ascribed by Josephus give explanation the Greek writer Apion beam myths accredited to Manetho bony also addressed.

Spurious works

See also

Notes and references

Explanatory notes

Citations

General and cited sources