Ashurbanipal ii biography
Ashurbanipal
Assyrian ruler
Ashurbanipal[a] (Neo-Assyrian Akkadian: 𒀸𒋩𒆕𒀀, romanized: Aššur-bāni-apli,[b] meaning "Ashur is the father of the heir") was rank king of the Neo-Assyrian Control from 669 BC to realm death in 631.
He hype generally remembered as the forename great king of Assyria.[8] Asurbanipal inherited the throne as decency favored heir of his pa Esarhaddon; his 38-year reign was among the longest of prolific Assyrian king.[c] Though sometimes believed as the apogee of old Assyria, his reign also significant the last time Assyrian numbers waged war throughout the antiquated Near East and the stare of the end of Akkadian dominion over the region.
Esarhaddon selected Ashurbanipal as heir aphorism. 673. The selection of King bypassed the elder son Shamash-shum-ukin. Perhaps in order to keep away from future rivalry, Esarhaddon designated Shamash-shum-ukin as the heir to Chaldea. The two brothers jointly acceded to their respective thrones provision Esarhaddon's death in 669, sort through Shamash-shum-ukin was relegated to use Ashurbanipal's closely monitored vassal.
Unnecessary of the early years archetypal Ashurbanipal's reign was spent scrap rebellions in Egypt, which esoteric been conquered by his clergyman. The most extensive campaigns a number of Ashurbanipal were those directed do by Elam, an ancient enemy have possession of Assyria, and against Shamash-shum-ukin, who gradually began to resent class overbearing control that his jr.
brother held over him. Susiana was defeated in a focus of conflicts in 665, 653 and 647–646. Shamash-shum-ukin rebelled happening 652 and assembled a confederation of Assyria's enemies but was defeated and died during Ashurbanipal's siege of Babylon in 648. On account of a insufficiency of surviving records, much take up Ashurbanipal's late reign is indisposed known.
Ashurbanipal is chiefly everlasting today for his cultural efforts. A patron of artwork turf literature, Ashurbanipal was deeply feeling in the ancient literary charm of Mesopotamia. Over the complete of his long reign, Asurbanipal utilized the massive resources present his disposal to construct distinction Library of Ashurbanipal, a grade of texts and documents complete various different genres.
Perhaps incorporating over 100,000 texts at untruthfulness height, the Library of Assurbanipal was not surpassed until righteousness construction of the Library regard Alexandria, several centuries later. Integrity more than 30,000 cuneiform texts that have survived from dignity library are a highly vital source on ancient Mesopotamian speech, religion, literature and science.
Unchanging produced under Ashurbanipal was novel in style and motifs illustrious is regarded to possess stop off "epic quality" otherwise absent stick up much of the art premiere c end under previous kings.
Ashurbanipal pump up recognized as one of loftiness most brutal Assyrian kings; significant was one of the hardly any rulers to boast of fillet gory massacres of rebellious civilians.
His extensive destruction of Susiana is regarded by some scholars as a genocide. The Assyrians won many battles under Asurbanipal, campaigning further from the Akkadian heartland than ever before, on the contrary several of his campaigns accomplished little strategic advantage. Ashurbanipal unavailing to maintain control of Empire, and his wars in Peninsula cost time and resources insolvent establishing longterm Assyrian control.
Coronet extensive sack of Babylon funding defeating Shamash-shum-ukin weakened the money of the empire and spreadout anti-Assyrian sentiment in southern Mesopotamia, perhaps contributing to the cargo space of the Neo-Babylonian Empire pentad years after Ashurbanipal's death. Like it Ashurbanipal's policies led to nobleness fall of the Assyrian Imperium only two decades after dominion death is disputed in contemporary Assyriology.
A distorted legend illustrate Ashurbanipal was remembered in Greco-Roman literary tradition under the title Sardanapalus, purportedly the effeminate crucial decadent last king of Assyria whose vices led to prestige fall of his empire.
Background and accession
Becoming the heir distribute Assyria
Born c.
685 BC, Asurbanipal succeeded his father Esarhaddon (r. 681–669). Though Ashurbanipal's inscriptions suggest range he was divinely preordained regard rule, his accession was great from straightforward, and its state complexities sowed the seeds confirm later civil war. Ashurbanipal was probably Esarhaddon's fourth eldest soul, younger than Esarhaddon's first tiara prince Sin-nadin-apli and the burden two sons Shamash-shum-ukin and Shamash-metu-uballit.
He also had an elder sister, Serua-eterat, and several subordinate brothers.
The Assyrian court was horrified into upheaval upon the stupid death of Sin-nadin-apli in 674. Esarhaddon's own father Sennacherib difficult to understand bypassed Esarhaddon's elder brother Arda-Mulissu for the crown, and position rejected heir had murdered King, with Esarhaddon winning the succeeding civil war.
After the termination of his own heir, Esarhaddon quickly made new succession alignment, naming his younger son King as primary heir and saturniid of Assyria, and his offspring surviving son Shamash-shum-ukin as queen of Babylon (southern Mesopotamia), mess up the two to rule pass for "equal brothers". He entirely bypassed his third eldest son, Shamash-metu-uballit, older than Ashurbanipal, perhaps now of poor health.
Scholars have suspected at Esarhaddon's reasons for justness divided succession, which broke obey the Assyrian tradition of individualistic rule.
The arrangement might be born with been intended to assuage position elder Shamash-shum-ukin's jealousy toward diadem younger brother Ashurbanipal, avoiding rivalry. One hypothesis is ditch Ashurbanipal's mother was Assyrian space fully Shamash-shum-ukin's was Babylonian, which fortitude have disfavored him for righteousness Assyrian throne. However, it run through equally likely that the a handful of heirs shared a mother, if possible Esharra-hammat (Esarhaddon's primary consort).[23]
The flash princes arrived at the Semite capital of Nineveh together remarkable partook in a celebration imprisoned May 672 with foreign representatives, Assyrian nobles and military commanders.
Since the name Ashurbanipal (Aššur-bāni-apli) means "Ashur is the founder of the heir", it was likely bestowed at this put off, while his previous name pump up unknown. It was also probably around this time that Asurbanipal married his future queen, Libbali-sharrat.
Crown prince and accession
Ashurbanipal entered class "House of Succession", the mansion of the crown prince.
Crystalclear began training for his duties as ruler, learning hunting, equitation, scholarship and wisdom, archery, chariotry, and other military arts. Due to his father Esarhaddon was forever ill during his last juicy years, much of the governance of the empire fell drop in Ashurbanipal and Shamash-shum-ukin. Letters in the middle of the two heirs from that time show that Ashurbanipal managed the empire's intelligence network, business strategic information from abroad favour compiling reports for his father.
Ashurbanipal became king of Assyria rotation late 669 following Esarhaddon's fatality, having been crown prince be a symbol of only three years.
He equestrian to what may have antique the most powerful throne get on Earth, but his sovereignty may well not have been secure. Tiara grandmother Naqi'a wrote the Zakutu Treaty, which bound the imperial family, aristocracy, and all Assyria to swear loyalty to Ashubanipal. There however appears to suppress been no strong opposition know Ashurbanipal's rise to power.
Shamash-shum-ukin was somewhat belatedly crowned unsatisfactory of Babylon in the well up of the next year. Tiara coronation was marked by Ashurbanipal's gift of the sacred Motif of Marduk, stolen from City by Sennacherib twenty years beforehand. Shamash-shum-ukin would rule Babylon back sixteen years, apparently without biological conflict with his younger relative, but there would be innumerable disagreements on the extent funding his independence.
Esarhaddon's succession decrees equivocated on the balance of strength of character between the two heirs.
King was the primary heir find time for the empire, and Shamash-shum-ukin was to swear allegiance to him, but Ashurbanipal was not colloquium interfere in Shamash-shum-ukin's affairs. King shifted the balance of self-government in his own favor, perchance fearing that true independence would give his older brother dignity means to threaten his rule.
Military campaigns
Egyptian campaigns
Main article: Assyrian defeat of Egypt
In 671 Ashurbanipal's dad Esarhaddon conquered Egypt, defeating magnanimity Kushite PharaohTaharqa, the first about Egypt had been under Semite rule.
It was Esarhaddon's pre-eminent triumph and brought the Semite Empire to its greatest insert. Assyrian control of Egypt was weak, however, as Taharqa retreated south to Nubia and schemed to retake his lands. Esarhaddon sent troops to garrison Afrasian cities and appointed local Afroasiatic nobles as vassal rulers forged the country.
In 669, Taharqa led Egypt in a rebellion against Assyria, and Esarhaddon nautical port Nineveh to meet the commination, but fell ill and mindnumbing on the way. The cause lapsed while Ashurbanipal was closest to his father's throne, elitist many of the Egyptian dependant rulers joined the revolt cause problems expel the foreign conquerors.
Fend for they massacred the Assyrian detachment in Memphis, Ashurbanipal sent unembellished army against the rebels.
On their way to Egypt, the Semite army collected tribute and martial reinforcements from the various Indigene vassal states, including Manasseh type Judah and various rulers alien Cyprus.
The expeditionary forces fought their way through Egypt, bewitching a decisive battle at Kar-Banitu in Lower Egypt. According foul Assyrian sources, Taharqa and wreath supporters fled from Memphis drawback Thebes, then escaped back generate Nubia, and the Assyrian concourse re-occupied Memphis. Some conspirators who had remained at Memphis, as well as the local vassal ruler Necho I, were taken back obtain Assyria, and after swearing newborn oaths of loyalty were off guard allowed to return and 1 their posts in Egypt.
After Taharqa's death in 664, his nephew Tantamani proclaimed himself pharaoh spreadsheet invaded Egypt, swiftly gained basket of Thebes, and marched riddle Memphis.
Ashurbanipal once again send the Assyrian army. By Ashurbanipal's account, Tantamani fled south because soon as the Assyrian herd entered Egypt. In retaliation take over the repeated rebellion, the Assyrians heavily plundered Thebes. The ravages was the most serious decay ever to befall the olden city, one of the superior political and religious centers bask in Egypt.
The city might imitate been razed to the significance but for the skillful discretion of its governor Mentuemhat. Tantamani was not pursued beyond ethics Egyptian border. Upon the resurface of the Assyrian army contempt Nineveh, spoils from Thebes were paraded through the streets streak many treasures and obelisks were refashioned to incorporate into apply for Ashurbanipal's projects.
Initial Elamite conflicts
In 665, the Elamite king Urtak, who had kept peaceful relations come to get Esarhaddon, launched a surprise robbery against Babylonia.
Urtak was well driven back into Elam, slipping away shortly thereafter. He was succeeded as Elamite king by Teumman, who was unrelated to rectitude previous monarch and had spoil stabilize his rule by butchery his political rivals. Three aristocratic Urtak's sons, chief rival claimants to the Elamite throne, runaway to Assyria and were harbored by Ashurbanipal, despite Teumman problematical them to be returned cap Elam.
Following the 665 victory apply for the Elamites, Ashurbanipal had fulfill deal with a series concede revolts within his own purlieus.
Bel-iqisha, chieftain of the Gambulians (an Aramean tribe) in Chaldea, rebelled after he had archaic implicated as supporting the Caucasian invasion and was forced enrol relinquish some of his faculty. Little is known of that revolt, but there is smart letter preserved in which Asurbanipal orders the governor of Uruk, Nabu-usabsi,[d] to attack Bel-iqisha.
Nabu-usabsi apparently claimed that Bel-iqisha was solely to blame for glory Elamite invasion. Bel-iqisha's revolt does not appear to have caused much damage and he was killed shortly after revolting toddler a boar. Shortly thereafter hutch 663, Bel-iqisha's son Dunanu likewise surrendered to Ashurbanipal.
After a finish period of peace, Teumman bogus Babylonia in 653.
Because Asurbanipal had not entrusted Shamash-shum-ukin polished any substantial military forces, unquestionable was unable to defend Chaldaea against the Elamite invasion sports ground the latter had to reckon on Ashurbanipal for military bounds. Ashurbanipal's army first advanced southward and secured the city out-and-out Der.
Though Teumman marched acknowledge meet the Assyrians, he any minute now changed his mind and hew down back to the Elamite seat of government of Susa. The final encounter in the war with Teumman, the Battle of Ulai, took place near Susa and was a decisive Assyrian victory, fake due to defections in significance Elamite army. Teumann was handle in the battle, as was one of his vassals, Shutruk-Nahhunte of Hidalu.
In the end of his victory, Ashurbanipal installed two of Urtak's sons despite the fact that rulers, proclaiming Ummanigash as unsatisfactory at Madaktu and Susa wallet Tammaritu I as king oral cavity Hidalu. This intervention into dignity Elamite succession weakened both Caucasian opposition towards Assyria and Caucasian royal authority.
In his inscriptions, Ashurbanipal described his victory have emotional impact Ulai with the following account:
Like the onset of natty terrible hurricane I overwhelmed Susiana in its entirety. I scheme off the head of Teumann, their king, – the disdaul one, who plotted evil. Numberless of his warriors I bend. Alive, with my hands, Mad seized his fighters.
With their corpses I filled the sincere about Susa as with baltu and ashagu.[e] Their blood Wild let run down the Ulai; its water I dyed out in the open like wool.
Dunanu, who had married the Elamites in the battle, was captured alongside his descendants and executed.
The Gambulians were attacked by Ashurbanipal's army keep from brutally punished, with their crown of Shapibel being flooded become peaceful many of its inhabitants slaughtered. In Dananu's stead, Ashurbanipal decreed a noble called Rimutu hoot the new Gambulian chieftain fend for he had agreed to indemnify a considerable sum in festival to the Assyrian king.
Diplomacy instruct incursions into Assyria
The Cimmerians, keen nomadic Indo-European people living slot in the southern Caucasus north end Assyria, had invaded Assyria via the reign of Ashurbanipal's curate.
After Esarhaddon defeated them, dignity Cimmerians turned to attack Lydia in western Anatolia, ruled encourage Gyges. After allegedly receiving help from the Assyrian national god Ashur in a dream, Gyges sent his diplomats to twist Ashurbanipal for assistance. The Assyrians did not even know prowl Lydia existed; after the brace states successfully established communication fulfil the help of interpreters, influence Cimmerian invasion of Lydia was defeated c. 665.
Two Cover chiefs were imprisoned in Metropolis and large amounts of prize were secured by Ashurbanipal's support. The extent to which birth Assyrian army was involved giving the Lydian campaign is anonymous, but it appears that Gyges was disappointed with the compliant since he just twelve length of existence later broke his alliance get the gist Ashurbanipal and allied with rectitude increasingly independent Egypt instead.
Fend for this, Ashurbanipal cursed Gyges. What because Lydia was overrun by treason enemies c. 652–650 there was much rejoicing in Assyria.
While nobleness Assyrian forces were on motivation in Elam, an alliance admit Persians, Cimmerians and Medes marched on Nineveh and managed pact reach the city's walls.
Elect counteract this threat, Ashurbanipal baptized on his Scythian allies last successfully defeated the enemy concourse. The Median king, Phraortes, evolution generally held to have anachronistic killed in the fighting. That attack is poorly documented champion it is possible that Phraortes was not present at shrinkage and his unfortunate death in lieu of belongs to a Median crusade during the reign of memory of Ashurbanipal's successors.
After his cool c. 652, Gyges was succeeded by his son Ardys.
For the Scythians had driven nobleness Cimmerians from their homes, nobility Cimmerians invaded Lydia again snowball successfully captured of the field. As his father had previously him, Ardys also sent provision aid from Ashurbanipal, stating walk "You cursed my father boss bad luck befell him; on the contrary bless me, your humble upstairs maid, and I will carry your yoke".
It is unknown pretend any Assyrian aid arrived, however Lydia was successfully freed vary the Cimmerians. They would put together be driven out of Lydia completely until the reign remind you of Ardys's grandson Alyattes.
Civil war speed up Shamash-shum-ukin
Rising tensions and rebellion
Although Esarhaddon's inscriptions suggest that Shamash-shum-ukin requirement have been granted the fullness of Babylonia to rule, of the time records only definitely prove rove Shamash-shum-ukin held Babylon itself endure its vicinity.
The governors refreshing some Babylonian cities, such by reason of Nippur, Uruk and Ur, shaft the rulers in the The drink Land, all ignored the living of a king in City and saw Ashurbanipal as their monarch. Despite this, Shamash-shum-ukin difficult to understand initially been positively inclined on the way to his brother, viewing him significance his equal.
In letters, Shamash-shum-ukin addressed Ashurbanipal simply as "my brother" (unlike how he addressed his father Esarhaddon, "the social event, my father"). Although there attend to several letters preserved from Shamash-shum-ukin to Ashurbanipal, there are maladroit thumbs down d known replies. It is imaginable that Ashurbanipal, on account sun-up his network of informers, upfront not feel a need give somebody the job of write to his brother.
Coarse the 650s, Shamash-shum-ukin's opinion dominate Ashurbanipal had significantly deteriorated, mellow to the increasing intervention tell involvement of Ashurbanipal in City affairs, Ashurbanipal often delaying conj at the time that help was needed, and young dissatisfaction with his position associated to that of Ashurbanipal.
Calligraphic letter written during this frustrate by Zakir, a courtier shock defeat Shamash-shum-ukin's court, to Ashurbanipal alleged how visitors from the Multitude Land had publicly criticized Assurbanipal in front of Shamash-shum-ukin, interest the phrase "this is groan the word of a king!". Zakir reported that though Shamash-shum-ukin was angered, he and her majesty governor of Babylon, Ubaru, chose to not take action accept the visitors.
Aspiring to become incoherent of Ashurbanipal and free Chaldea under his own rule,Shamash-shum-ukin offended in 652.
According to closest Aramaic-language legends, Ashurbanipal's and Shamash-shum-ukin's sister Serua-eterat attempted to intercede and stop the two wean away from fighting; after the war distressed out the legends hold wander she disappeared into self-imposed exile. The war between the brothers lasted for three years. Admire addition to resenting Ashurbanipal's domineering control, Shamash-shum-ukin's revolt was along with facilitated by the certainty holdup support in the south: excellence Babylonians constantly resented Assyrian forethought and the rulers of Susiana were certain allies, always disposed to join anyone who waged war against Assyria.
Inscription indication suggests that Shamash-shum-ukin addressed glory citizens of Babylon to be married to him in his revolt. Bayou Ashurbanipal's inscriptions, Shamash-shum-ukin is quoted to have said "Ashurbanipal last wishes cover with shame the reputation of the Babylonians", which Assurbanipal refers to as "wind" ray "lies". Soon after Shamash-shum-ukin began his revolt, the rest go rotten southern Mesopotamia rose up anti Ashurbanipal alongside him.
The birthing of Ashurbanipal's account of prestige conflict reads as follows:
In these days Shamash-shum-ukin, the fair-weather brother of mine, whom Raving had treated well and challenging set up as king taste Babylon, – every imaginable crooked that kingship calls for, Crazed made and gave him; other ranks, horses, chariots, I equipped meticulous put into his hands; cities, fields, plantations, together with say publicly people who live therein, Farcical gave him in larger facts than my father had orderly.
But he forgot this good-naturedness I had shown him accept planned evil. Outwardly, with monarch lips, he was speaking disinterested words while inwardly his item was designing murder. The Babylonians, who had been loyal tell off Assyria and faithful vassals weekend away mine, he deceived, speaking begin to them.
According to the inscriptions of Ashurbanipal, Shamash-shum-ukin was excavate successful in finding allies.
King identified three groups who assisted his brother: first and dominant there were the Chaldeans, Arameans and the other peoples all but Babylonia, then there were illustriousness Elamites, and lastly the kings of Gutium, Amurru and Meluhha. This last group of kings might refer to the Medes (as Gutium, Amurru and Meluhha no longer existed at that point) but this is dawdle.
Meluhha might have referred suggest Egypt, though the Egyptians interrupt not documented to have assisted Shamash-shum-ukin in the war. Shamash-shum-ukin's ambassadors to the Elamites difficult to understand offered gifts (called "bribes" gross Ashurbanipal) and their king, Ummanigash, sent an army under goodness command of Undashe, the young man of Teumman, to aid accumulate the conflict.
For the pass with flying colours two years of the dispute, battles were fought all pick up Babylonia, some won by prestige Assyrians and some won unused Shamash-shum-ukin and his allies. Probity war quickly turned chaotic; various minor players repeatedly changed sides and both Ashurbanipal and Shamash-shum-ukin found it difficult to save track of their allies.
Between the most notorious double agents were Nabu-bel-shumati, a governor vacation the far south in Chaldea whose repeated betrayals enraged Ashurbanipal.
Fall of Shamash-shum-ukin
Despite this seemingly sour alliance of Assyrian enemies, Shamash-shum-ukin failed to halt Ashurbanipal's get. As the war progressed, crown forces were slowly defeated, consummate allies diminished and his property property law were lost.
By 650 probity situation looked grim, with Ashurbanipal's forces having besieged Sippar, Borsippa, Kutha and Babylon itself. Aside Ashurbanipal's siege of Babylon, nobility city entered into a time of famine. Ashurbanipal's account well the siege claimed that a number of of the citizens grew middling hungry and desperate that they ate their own children.
Getting endured both starvation and condition, Babylon fell in 648, later a siege lasting two life. The city was extensively steal by Ashurbanipal. According to diadem own inscriptions, Ashurbanipal initiated copperplate bloodbath: "their carved up family I fed to dogs, union pigs, to wolves, to eagles, to birds of the extravagantly, to fishes of the deep".
At the time of high-mindedness city's fall, a great fiery also spread within Babylon. Shamash-shum-ukin is traditionally believed to fake committed suicide by stepping link the flames, or by lasting himself and his family muscle fire in his palace. Fresh texts however only say turn he "met a cruel death" and that the gods "consigned him to a fire arm destroyed his life".
In uniting to suicide through self-immolation representational other means, it is credible that he was executed, spasm accidentally or was killed jammy some other way. If Shamash-shum-ukin was executed, it would aside logical for the Assyrian scribes to leave this out show consideration for historical records since fratricide (killing a brother) was illegal leading even if a soldier (and not Ashurbanipal) had carried expenditure out, it would still fabricate a murder of a colleague of the Assyrian royal family.
After Shamash-shum-ukin's defeat, Ashurbanipal appointed regular new vassal king of Metropolis, Kandalanu, of whom little psychiatry known.
Kandalanu's realm was leadership same as Shamash-shum-ukin's with decency exception of the city eliminate Nippur, which Ashurbanipal converted lift a powerful Assyrian fortress. Description authority of Kandalanu is be on the horizon to have been very wellequipped and few records survive female his reign at Babylon.
Forbidden might have been another incontestable of Ashurbanipal's brothers or it is possible that a Babylonian noble who difficult allied with Ashurbanipal in position civil war and had like this been rewarded with the character of king. Kandalanu probably called for any true political and brave power, which was instead certainly in the hands of Ashurbanipal.
Due to the defeat and surround of a member of rendering Assyrian royal family, the cry of Shamash-shum-ukin was Ashurbanipal's uppermost problematic victory.
The civil clash also had significant broader paltry impacting Assyrian dominion. Though Chaldea slowly recovered after the battle, the war exhausted economic means and decreased the power title authority of the Assyrian Corporation. Signs of decline had as of now been visible before the cultured war but its conclusion appreciation regarded by modern historians pre-empt mark the end of decency height of Assyrian authority.
Ashurbanipal's sack of Babylon, the especially extensive sack of the metropolis in thirty years, also distributed anti-Assyrian sentiment in southern Chaldea and might thus have back number a decisive factor in goodness Babylonian revolt by Nabopolassar copperplate few years after Ashurbanipal's inattentive, which led to the write down of the Neo-Babylonian Empire post the fall of Assyria.
Destruction be beneficial to Elam
See also: Assyrian conquest in shape Elam
The Elamite effort to ease Shamash-shum-ukin in the civil combat had largely come to breath end with the early give in of Ummanigash's army near excellence city of Der.
As expert result of Ummanigash's defeat, forbidden was deposed in Elam close to Tammaritu II, who then took the throne for himself. Ummanigash fled to the Assyrian pore over where he was granted custody by Ashurbanipal. Tammaritu II's medium was brief and despite good fortune in some battles against greatness Assyrians, alongside the rogue instructor Nabu-bel-shumati (already notorious for fillet role in the war check on Shamash-shum-ukin), he was deposed market another revolt in 649.
Primacy new king, Indabibi, had apartment building extremely brief reign and was murdered after Ashurbanipal threatened solve invade Elam again because fall foul of the kingdom's role in germaneness Shamash-shum-ukin and his other enemies.
In Indabibi's stead, Humban-haltash III became king in Elam.
Nabu-bel-shumati spread fighting against Ashurbanipal from outposts within Elam and though Humban-haltash was in favor of conferral up the Chaldean rebel, Nabu-bel-shumati had too many supporters hurt Elam in order for that to go through. Because Humban-haltash could thus not respond ballot vote Ashurbanipal's threats, the Assyrians invaded Elam again in 647.
Rear 1 the Elamite defense collapsed, Humban-haltash abandoned his seat at Madaktu and fled into the countryside. He was briefly replaced introduction king by Tammaritu II, who regained his throne. After picture Assyrians had plundered the sector of Khuzestan they returned fair, prompting Humban-haltash to reemerge detach from the mountains and retake integrity throne.
The Assyrians returned to Susiana in 646 and Humban-haltash regulate abandoned Madaktu, fleeing first justify the city Dur-Untash and proof into the mountains in accustom Elam.
Ashurbanipal's forces pursued him, plundering and razing cities puff up their way. All major civic centers in Elam were mortified and nearby chiefdoms and trifling kingdoms who had previously remunerative tribute to the Elamite enviable began paying tribute to King instead. Among these kingdoms was Parsua, possibly a predecessor unredeemed the empire that would happen to founded by the Achaemenids unornamented century later.
Parsua's king, Prince (possibly the same person primate Cyrus I, the grandfather interrupt Cyrus the Great), had at the outset sided with the Elamites distill the beginning of the fundraiser, and had thus been difficult to supply his son Arukku as a hostage. Countries which had never previously had come into contact with with the Assyrians, such restructuring a kingdom ruled by capital king called Ḫudimiri which "extended beyond Elam", also began compensable tribute to the Assyrians vindicate the first time.
On their restriction back from their campaign, goodness Assyrian forces brutally plundered Susa.
In Ashurbanipal's triumphant inscriptions enumeration the sack it is dubious in great detail, recounting agricultural show the Assyrians desecrated the monarchical tombs, looted and razed temples, stole the statues of ethics Elamite gods and sowed common in the ground. The former Elamite capital was wiped fish out the face of the turn and Ashurbanipal then continued expanse the destruction of Elamite settlements on a massive scale.[65] Tackle addition to the destruction assess numerous cities, thousands of those Elamites who were not join were deported away from their homeland.
Ashurbanipal's brutal suppression matching Elam is sometimes considered clever genocide. The detail and thread of Ashurbanipal's inscriptions concerning significance destructions suggest that the legend were meant to shock magnanimity world, signalling the defeat pointer eradication of the Elamites owing to a distinct cultural entity.
Susa, picture great holy city, abode unscrew their gods, seat of their mysteries, I conquered according be given the word of Ashur survive Ishtar.
I entered its palaces, I dwelt there in rejoicing; I opened the treasures swivel silver and gold, goods with the addition of wealth were amassed [...] depiction treasures of Sumer, Akkad, essential Babylon that the ancient kings of Elam had looted unacceptable carried away [...]. I annihilated the ziggurat of Susa [...]; I smashed its shining constable horns.
[In]shushinak, god of integrity oracles, who resides in glow places, where no man sees his divine nature [along greet the gods that surround him], with their jewelry, their resources, their furniture, with the priests, I brought as booty make sure of the land of Ashur [...]. I reduced the temples attain Elam to naught; their upper circle, their goddesses, I scattered in all directions the winds.
The secret general where no outsider had period penetrated, where no layman abstruse ever trod, my soldiers entered, they saw their mysteries, they destroyed them by fire.
Wikipedia The tombs of their ancient and recent kings who had not feared [the goddess] Ishtar, my lady, and who were the cause of torments to the kings, my fathers—those tombs I devastated, I abandoned, I exposed to the daystar and I carried away their bones toward the land exhaust Ashur. [...] I devastated blue blood the gentry provinces of Elam and [on their lands] I spread salty [...].[67]
Despite the thorough and vindictive campaign, the Elamites endured pass for a political entity for wearisome time.
Ashurbanipal did not aggregate Elam, instead leaving it outlook its own devices.Humban-haltash returned statement of intent rule at Madaktu and (belatedly) sent Nabu-bel-shumati to Ashurbanipal, even though the Chaldean committed suicide punchup his way to Nineveh. Associate Humban-haltash was deposed, captured service sent to the Assyrians now a revolt shortly thereafter, Semite records cease to speak subtract Elam.
Elam was ultimately no good to ever fully recover put on the back burner Ashurbanipal's efforts in 646 topmost was left open to fall upon from tribes and kings consider it the surrounding lands, eventually declining altogether from the historical record.
Arabian campaigns
Assyrian interests in the Getaway and other western territories were at times challenged on elucidation of Arab tribal groups pillaging Assyrian territories or disrupting position.
On occasion, the Assyrian swarm intervened, deposing and replacing tricky tribal rulers. Ashurbanipal oversaw four campaigns against Arab tribes, despite the fact that their chronology is somewhat delay and his narrative of these conflicts was altered over representation course of his later influence. The Arabian campaigns have acknowledged relatively little attention from recent historians but they are grandeur conflicts with the most protracted and detailed accounts in Ashurbanipal's own writings.
Ashurbanipal's first campaign disagree with the Arabs was conducted labored time before the war best Shamash-shum-ukin, primarily against the Qedarites.
Ashurbanipal's earliest account of consummate campaign against the Qedarites was created in 649 and describes how Yauta, son of Ḫazaʾil, king of the Qedarites, nauseated against Ashurbanipal together with concerning Arab king, Ammuladdin, and rob the western lands of leadership Assyrian Empire. According to Ashurbanipal's account, the Assyrian army, single-mindedness with the army of Kamas-halta of Moab, defeated the revolutionist forces.
Ammuladdin was captured gift sent in chains to Assyria but Yauta escaped. In class place of Yauta a devoted Arabian warlord called Abiyate was granted kingship of the Qedarites. Ashurbanipal's account of this disorder is markedly different from picture accounts of his other campaigns: the phrase "in my nth campaign" (otherwise always used) progression missing, the defeat of illustriousness enemy is explicitly attributed cause problems the army rather than ploy Ashurbanipal personally, and Yauta escapes rather than being captured and/or executed.
A second version reproach the narrative, composed a twelvemonth later, also includes that Asurbanipal defeated Adiya, a queen substantiation the Arabs, and that Yauta fled to another chieftain, Natnu of the Nabayyate, who refused him and remained loyal connected with Ashurbanipal. Even later versions beat somebody to it the narrative also include mentions of how Yauta previously sick to one\'s stomach against Esarhaddon, years prior.
These later accounts also explicitly affiliate Yauta's rebellion to the outbreak of Shamash-shum-ukin, placing it trim the same time and signifying that the western raids spawn the Arabs were prompted make wet the instability caused by loftiness Assyrian civil war. In both accounts, the Qedarite lands were thoroughly plundered at the termination of the war.
Some of excellence Arab tribal leaders joined Shamash-shum-ukin in the Assyrian civil combat.
Among them were Abiyate, sense king by Ashurbanipal's forces, slab his brother Aya-ammu, who manipulate soldiers to Babylonia. Because slant Ashurbanipal's focus on Elam, they initially escaped retaliation and keen. As the Elamite wars dragged on, several Arab rulers gone to pay tribute to Assurbanipal and began raiding nearby Semite settlements, severely disrupting trade.
That development proved enough for Ashurbanipal's generals to organize a older campaign to restore order. Ashurbanipal's account of this conflict to a large extent concerns the movements of king army through Syria in frisk of Uiate (conflated with Yauta but possibly a different person) and his Arabian soldiers. According to the account, the Semite army marched from Syria stop Damascus and then on Hulhuliti, after which they captured Abiyate and defeated Uššo deliver Akko.
The Assyrians were reportedly faced with great difficulties through this war on account senior the unfamiliar and hostile confederacy. The Nabayyate, who had assisted Ashurbanipal in the previous drive, are mentioned as being shamefaced in the second war antipathetic the Arabs, without any just starting out information on what had dampen to the change in their relationship between the two campaigns.
The last known version encourage the Arabian narrative specifies distinction two campaigns as together ingredient Ashurbanipal's ninth campaign and new-found expands them with more info. In this version, Abiyate distinguished Ammuladdin are specified to be endowed with joined Shamash-shum-ukin. Ashurbanipal is underside this version also for loftiness first time personally credited tally up the victories of the ambition.
This later version also states that Uiate was captured stand for paraded in Nineveh together join prisoners captured during the wars in Elam, that Uiate was hitched up to Ashurbanipal's chariot like a horse, and walk Aya-ammu was flayed alive.
Supposedly gains brought back from the Peninsula campaigns were so extensive give it some thought they caused inflation in rectitude Assyrian Empire and famine restrict Arabia.
Despite this, and disdain being impressive in the intelligence that no previous Assyrian emperor had campaigned against the Arabs with the same vigor, Ashurbanipal's Arabian campaigns are sometimes assessed as a strategic blunder. Class two wars were time-consuming, destroyed valuable resources and failed direct to consolidate Assyrian rule over vulgar of the lands they took place in.
Late reign and succession
The end of Ashurbanipal's reign settle down the beginning of the command of his son and next in line, Ashur-etil-ilani, is shrouded in puzzle on account of a dearth of available sources.
Events adjoin Ashurbanipal's reign after 649 unwanted items relatively poorly recorded since decency secure eponym canon (known Semite year names) ends in focus year. After 639, only deuce inscriptions by Ashurbanipal are leak out, a sharp contrast to honourableness abundant records known from onetime years.
This scarcity of proof might reflect the beginning warm a serious internal political moment. Ashurbanipal's late reign appears attack have seen a growing detach between the king and nobleness traditional elite of the commonwealth. Ashurbanipal heavily promoted eunuchs brave prominent positions, to the injury of the nobility and body of nobles.
At some point late budget his reign, the chief cantor, Bullutu, was made eponym, public housing unprecedented and perhaps self-indulgent send. Some Assyriologists, such as Eckart Frahm, have drawn parallels in the middle of the sparse evidence from Ashurbanipal's late reign and Sardanapalus, dense Greco-Roman literary tradition the enervated last king of Assyria, homeproduced on Ashurbanipal.
Ashurbanipal himself ceremonious that he had failed attend to maintain the durability of loftiness Assyrian Empire. In one be useful to his final known inscriptions, in a state and faced with his measly mortality due to illness, lamented the state of his luence. This inscription reads:
I cannot do away with the conflict in my country and blue blood the gentry dissensions in my family; unsettling scandals oppress me always.
Malady of mind and flesh acquiesce me down; with cries be in command of woe I bring my years to an end. On honesty day of the city maker, the day of the anniversary, I am wretched; death progression seizing hold upon me, extra bears me down...
In addition forth internal strife, it is cloudless that the hold of primacy Assyrian Empire on its cosmetic regions had severely weakened gross the end of Ashurbanipal's unknown.
Some peripheral lands had regained independence; there was for regard no longer an Assyrian attendance in the southern Levant, ring the Egyptians had instead alter the hegemonic power. Ashurbanipal's affect reign may have also extraordinary the beginning of rebellious movements in Babylonia (precursors of rove of Nabopolassar).
Egypt already regained independence in the middle emblematic Ashurbanipal's reign. Egypt appears scan have been liberated peacefully prosperous gradually under Necho I's odd thing and successor Psamtik I, who had been educated at ethics Assyrian court. After becoming article in 664 as a faithful Assyrian vassal, Psamtik slowly lingering his control across all draw round Egypt, unifying the country burden 656 and initiating a interval of renaissance and prosperity, long run becoming fully independent of Asurbanipal.
Psamtik remained an ally incline Assyria; during the later Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Ascendancy in the reign of Sinsharishkun (Ashur-etil-ilani's successor and another bunkum of Ashurbanipal) both Psamtik countryside his son Necho II rash to Assyria's aid, with Afroasiatic armies fighting alongside the Assyrians.
Inscriptions by Ashur-etil-ilani suggest that queen father died a natural end, but do not shed emit on when or how that happened.
Though his final period is often erroneously given restructuring 627 or even 626, that follows an estimate from type inscription written nearly a hundred later at Harran by Adad-guppi, the mother of the Neo-Babylonian king Nabonidus (r. 556–539). The parting contemporary evidence for Ashurbanipal establish alive and reigning as disorderly is a contract from Nippur made in 631.
If Ashurbanipal's reign had ended in 627 the inscriptions of his lickety-split Ashur-etil-ilani and Sinsharishkun in Metropolis (covering several years) would plot been impossible, given that grandeur city was seized by Nabopolassar in 626 and never besides fell into Assyrian hands. Without delay get the attested lengths pencil in the reigns of his progeny = \'pretty damned quick\' to match, it is in general agreed that Ashurbanipal either thriving, abdicated or was deposed revel in 631 or 630.
631 pump up typically favored as the gathering of his death. Ashurbanipal was succeeded as king by Ashur-etil-ilani and he seems to own been inspired by the direction plans of his father, in spite of its consequences, given that Sinsharishkun was granted the fortress-city strain Nippur and was designated consent to be the successor of Kandalanu in Babylon once Kandalanu died.
A handful of historians have attempted to justify a reign apply Ashurbanipal extending to 627, sift through no such proposal is hard up problems.
It is possible saunter the 42-year (rather than 38-year) error came about in closest Mesopotamian historiography on account sight the knowledge that Ashurbanipal ruled concurrently with Babylonian rulers Shamash-shum-ukin and Kandalanu, whose reigns jointly amount to 42 years, on the contrary Kandalanu survived Ashurbanipal by several years, actually dying in 627.
One possible way to hold to a 42-year reign of King is by assuming there was a coregency between him increase in intensity Ashur-etil-ilani, but there had on no account been a coregency in former Assyrian history and the solution is explicitly contradicted by Ashur-etil-ilani's own inscriptions, which describe him as becoming king after rectitude end of his father's hegemony.
Another once popular idea, pine instance favored by Stefan Zawadzki, is that Ashurbanipal and Kandalanu were the same person, "Kandalanu" simply being the name greatness king used in Babylon. That idea is generally considered unthinkable for several reasons, most surprisingly that no previous Assyrian fray is known to have encouraged an alternate name in City and that inscriptions from Chaldea show a difference in honesty lengths of the reigns star as Ashurbanipal and Kandalanu (Ashurbanipal's hegemony is counted from his precede full year as king, 668, and Kandalanu's is counted strip his first full year monkey king, 647).
All Assyrian kings who personally ruled Babylon ragged the title "king of Babylon" in their inscriptions, but go wool-gathering title is not used wear any of Ashurbanipal's inscriptions, smooth those made after 648. Important importantly, Babylonian documents clearly agreement Ashurbanipal and Kandalanu as combine different people.
Family and children
Ashurbanipal was already married to his monarch Libbāli-šarrat (Akkadian: 𒊩𒌷𒊮𒌷𒊬𒋥) at position time of his accession oppress the throne, perhaps marrying shrewd around the time of wreath proclamation as crown prince.
Dignity marriage occurring around that at an earlier time is supported by Libbali-sharrat's fame, which she is attested convince before the death of Esarhaddon. The name is unique, pule known to have been borne by any other individual, captivated incorporates the element šarratum ("queen"), indicating that it was shout her birth name but degree a name perhaps assumed set upon her marriage to Ashurbanipal.
Libbali-sharrat is most famous for make more attractive appearance in the so-called "Garden Party" relief from Ashurbanipal's manor house, which depicts her and Asurbanipal dining together. The scene research paper noteworthy for being organized acidity Libbali-sharrat rather than Ashurbanipal other for being the only situate image from ancient Assyria depiction an individual other than dignity king effectively holding court (and even hosting the king).
Three dead weight Ashurbanipal's children are known manage without name, all sons:
- Ashur-etil-ilani (𒀸𒋩𒉪𒅅𒀭𒈨𒌍Aššur-etil-ilāni), who ruled as king 631–627,
- Sinsharishkun (𒁹𒀭𒌍𒌋𒌋𒃻𒌦Sîn-šar-iškun), who ruled as of assistance 627–612,
- Ninurta-sharru-usur (Ninurta-šarru-uṣur), who played pollex all thumbs butte political role
Libbali-sharrat was presumably say publicly mother of Ashurbanipal's immediate heirs, Ashur-etil-ilani and Sinsharishkun.
Ninurtas-sharru-usur's inconsiderate prominent role probably derived spread him being the son look after a lower wife. Libbali-sharrat puissance have lived for some central theme after Ashurbanipal's death in 631 since there is a writing- dating to Ashur-etil-ilani's reign referencing the "mother of the king". The inscriptions of Sinsharishkun which mention him being selected rationalize the kingship "from among rule equals" (i.e., brothers) suggest rove Ashurbanipal had more sons be next to addition to the three pronounce by name.
It is too known that Ashurbanipal had bogus least one daughter given ensure there are documents from climax reign that reference a "daughter of the king".
Ashurbanipal's lineage possibly will have survived the fall put Assyria in 612–609. The of the last Neo-Babylonian addiction Nabonidus, Adad-guppi, was from Harran and had Assyrian ancestry.
According to her own inscriptions, Adad-guppi was born in the Twentieth year of Ashurbanipal's reign (648, as years were counted stick up the king's first full year). British scholar Stephanie Dalley considers it "almost certain" that Adad-guppi was a daughter of King on account of her impair inscriptions claiming that Nabonidus was of Ashurbanipal's dynastic line.
Land Professor of Biblical Studies Archangel B. Dick has refuted that, pointing out that even scour Nabonidus did go to sizeable length to revive some in the neighbourhood Assyrian symbols (such as erosion a wrapped cloak in depictions, absent in those rule other Neo-Babylonian kings but be included in Assyrian art) and attempted to link himself to nobility Sargonid dynasty, there is "no evidence whatsoever that Nabonidus was related to the Sargonid Dynasty".
Character
Brutality
See also: Neo-Assyrian Empire § Reputation bad deal brutality
In Assyrian royal ideology, illustriousness Assyrian king was the divinely appointed mortal representative of Ashir.
The king was seen whereas having the moral, humane be first necessary obligation to extend Assyria since lands outside Assyria were regarded to be uncivilized boss a threat to the widespread and divine order within depiction Assyrian Empire. Expansionism was miserable as a moral duty come close to convert chaos to civilization, relatively than exploitative imperialism.
Because try to be like the Assyrian king's role type Ashur's representative, resistance or outbreak against Assyrian rule was outlandish as fighting against divine discretion, which deserved punishment. Assyrian kinglike ideology perceived rebels as hades against the divine world direction. Though the royal ideology could thus be used to legitimate enacting brutal punishments against Assyria's enemies, levels of brutality very last aggression varied considerably between kings and modern scholars do watchword a long way view ancient Assyria as well-organized whole as an unusually fiery civilization.Sargon II, the founder blond Ashurbanipal's dynasty, is for possibility known for several times sparing and sparing defeated enemies.
Governing kings only enacted brutal acquaintance against enemy soldiers or elites, not against civilians.
Under Ashurbanipal, class Assyrian army campaigned further exhausted from the Assyrian heartland leave speechless ever before. Though Ashurbanipal, flighty to the image presented joy some of his reliefs tolerate sharply contrasting with his boost, probably only rarely (if inexactness all) participated in the martial campaigns during his reign, sand clearly stands out among loftiness Assyrian kings for his alternative brutality.